Bio 11H Prep
Much Biology
4 major biological molecules of life
Protein
Proteins perform many different functions for us. They make up muscles and other tissues and also act as catalysts in chemical reactions. Proteins are made up of smaller units called amino acids. The amino acids are linked together to form a chain (primary structure), the chain is modified into a pleated sheet or alpha helix (secondary structure), those are folded up together (tertiary structure) and then stuck to another folded bunch of pleated sheets and alpha helixes (quaternary structure). The folds are quite important as the difference between proteins are the sequence of the amino acids and the way the protein is folded.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are short-term energy for cells. There are three types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the most basic form. They generally look like hexagons. Three basic examples are glucose, fructose and galactose.
Monosaccharides are the most basic form. They generally look like hexagons. Three basic examples are glucose, fructose and galactose.
Disaccharides are basically two monosaccharides bonded together. Some common examples are sucrose, lactose and maltose.
Polysaccharides are chains of three or more monosaccharides bonded together. Some examples are starch, cellulose and glycogen.
For energy, the sugars are broken down into glucose and are converted into ATP (which I will get to further down the page).
Lipids (fats)
There are three types of lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
Triglycerides are for long-term energy. They are made of three strands of fatty acids attached to glycerol.
Phospholipids are used to make the cell membrane. They are made of a phosphate molecule and two fatty acids. The phosphate molecule is hydrophilic and the fatty acids are hydrophobic.
Steroids are hormones like testosterone and estrogen.
Triglycerides are for long-term energy. They are made of three strands of fatty acids attached to glycerol.
Phospholipids are used to make the cell membrane. They are made of a phosphate molecule and two fatty acids. The phosphate molecule is hydrophilic and the fatty acids are hydrophobic.
Steroids are hormones like testosterone and estrogen.
Nucleic Acids
There are three types of nucleic acids: DNA, RNA and ATP.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found in the nucleus and mitochondria (but we'll just deal with the stuff in the nucleus) and has four bases, the nucleotides adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine. They come in pairs. A is double bonded with T, and C is triple bonded with G. DNA is long and has a double helix form. It carries genes and acts as a sort of genetic blueprint.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found in the nucleus and mitochondria (but we'll just deal with the stuff in the nucleus) and has four bases, the nucleotides adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine. They come in pairs. A is double bonded with T, and C is triple bonded with G. DNA is long and has a double helix form. It carries genes and acts as a sort of genetic blueprint.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) generally acts as a go-between for DNA since it is too large to leave the nucleus. There are messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). RNA helps the DNA make proteins by delivering the instructions to the ribosomes. RNA is just half of the DNA strand. Since T is not stable on its own, a U base (uracil, which is close to thymine) is used instead.
The last is ATP. ATP is used as biological energy. Glucose is converted into ATP in the mitochondria during cellular respiration. It stands for adenosine triphosphate and is a nucleic acid because it has the nucleotide base, adenine.
The last is ATP. ATP is used as biological energy. Glucose is converted into ATP in the mitochondria during cellular respiration. It stands for adenosine triphosphate and is a nucleic acid because it has the nucleotide base, adenine.
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell (Plant)
Eukaryotic cell (Animal)
(I drew these using my tablet :))
Protein synthesis
1. Starts in the nucleus with the DNA. RNA is made as a copy of the DNA and leaves the nucleus
2. The RNA goes to a ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
3. Ribosome reads the RNA and converts it into amino acids (they form a chain)
4. Amino acid chain enters RER and is modified (pleated sheets and alpha helixes)
5. The RER creates a vesicle through a process called blebbing (the membrane pinches off at the end) with the modified amino acid chain inside
6. The vesicle goes to the Golgi Body
7. The Golgi body modifies the amino acid chains further. They are now full proteins.
8. Golgi body blebs a vesicle
9. The vesicle takes the protein to its final destination.
There is a picture showing basic protein synthesis at the top of the page that I have drawn. It shows the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of a protein. The first step happens in the ribosome, the second in the RER, and the third and fourth in the Golgi Body.
2. The RNA goes to a ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
3. Ribosome reads the RNA and converts it into amino acids (they form a chain)
4. Amino acid chain enters RER and is modified (pleated sheets and alpha helixes)
5. The RER creates a vesicle through a process called blebbing (the membrane pinches off at the end) with the modified amino acid chain inside
6. The vesicle goes to the Golgi Body
7. The Golgi body modifies the amino acid chains further. They are now full proteins.
8. Golgi body blebs a vesicle
9. The vesicle takes the protein to its final destination.
There is a picture showing basic protein synthesis at the top of the page that I have drawn. It shows the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of a protein. The first step happens in the ribosome, the second in the RER, and the third and fourth in the Golgi Body.
EGGY LAB
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Mitosis |
Meiosis |
1. Occurs in body cells
2. Results in 2 cells genetically identical to each other and the parent cell 3. Has 4 steps (PMAT) 4. Happens for growth and repair |
1. Occurs in sex cells
2. Results in 4 cells genetically different from each other and the parent cell 3. Has 8 steps (PMAT x2) 4. Creates gametes |
Diffusion vs. osmosis
Diffusion |
osmosis |
The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Describes movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration |
The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Describes movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration |
Hypertonic: higher concentration of solute outside the cell, higher concentration of water inside the cell. More water leaves the cell than enters it to equalize the concentration. The cell with shrivel.
Hypotonic: lower concentration of solute outside the cell, lower concentration of water inside the cell. More water enters the cell than leaves it to equalize the concentration. An animal cell would swell and possibly lyse. This is the normal state for a plant cell. Isotonic: equal concentration of solute and water inside and outside the cell. Equal amounts of water move in and out of the cell. This is the normal state for an animal cell. |